Noh theater

From A Storehouse of Knowledge

Noh Theater (能楽堂, nōgakudou) is the traditional Japanese performing art, which combines the disciplines of Noh drama (能) and Kyōgen (狂言). It developed during the 14^th century's Muromachi period (1333 － 1573), although it's roots can be traced even further back to the 8^th century. It is the world's oldest existing form of theater.

There are about 240 plays in the current repertoire of Noh, and the majority of them were written by the end of the Muromachi period, in the 14^th century.

In modern times, both Noh and Kyōgen have both been highly acclaimed around the world for their great artistic value, and in 2001, UNESCO added the dual art of nōgakudou to its Intangible Cultural Heritage list as a "Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity".

What is Noh Theater?

Noh is a form of symbolic drama, delivered with a quiet elegance and graceful aesthetic effect, that is expressed by the word "yūgen" (幽玄), meaning an "elegant, refined, mysterious and elusive beauty". Noh plays are based on historical events or classical literature, and is structured around song and dance. The most obvious characteristic is that the main actor performs whilst wearing exceptionally beautiful, hand-carved masks.

The themes of the plays are generally more concerned with human destiny than with events, and it has evolved into a highly stylized and refined performing art, that takes place on a very simple stage.

Both Noh and Kyōgen have always been performed together on the same stage and both Noh - through its pursuit of a symbolic ideal beauty - and Kyōgen - through its realistic expression of humour - attempt to portray the true essence of human nature. Both are mutually complementary to each other.

What is Kyōgen?

Kyōgen is a "theater of laughter", based on the use of auspicious words, satire, and humour. It uses medieval life and folk tales as its main themes, and developed those themes into a dialogue-drama; a drama of story-telling that places great importance on words. It is the direct descendant of the mimetic art of Sarugaku, and, in order to depict the heart of things in a lively manner, it did not stop at mere realism but devised a stylized form of expression. It simplified the types of characters, the stage, and the props, and its masks underwent exaggeration. The comedy of Kyōgen became an official entertainment in the Edo Period, and as a result became more refined in nature. Although it still makes use of the everyday life of the common people in feudal society, its Edo-period satire and vulgar humour were toned down, whilst its art of witty jokes, clever language and tasteful humour were polished, and its move toward becoming an art of gentle humour and auspicious words was strengthened. It is an "art of words," its cheerful mood and vocal production is such that even when two characters talk over each other, their speeches can still be clearly heard and distinguished by the audience. On the basis of its sparse correctness and stylized acting style, its stories develop and explore many scenes that draw rich laughter from the audience, and leaves them in good spirits for the next part of the play.

History of Noh Theater

The Nara Period to the Kamakura Period (8^th to 14^th Centuries)

Up until the Edo Period (starting in the early 17^th century), Noh was known as Sarugaku no No (猿楽楽の能), or simply, Sarugaku (猿楽). The name, Sarugaku (which literally means "monkey entertainment", was derived from the word Sangaku, the collective name of a series of entertaining arts brought to Japan from China during the 8^th century.

Sangaku included many different types of performing arts, from acrobatics to song-and-dance routines and magic tricks. Gradually, its humourous mimicry became its central attraction, and the pronunciation of the word shifted from Sangaku to Sarugaku, which was written either "monkey entertainment" (猿楽) or "spoken entertainment" (詐る). From surviving documents of the time, it is apparent that Sarugaku was very popular and was often performed at shrine and temple festivals. Eventually "folk Sarugaku", performed by the common people, became the most popular form of the art.

Around the same time, the arts of Dengaku (田楽), which developed from the folklore and ritual prayers of agricultural communities, and Shūshi (修士), who were masters of incantation who arose through the rituals of the esoteric Buddhism of great temples, were both very popular, and they exerted a great influence on the arts. At the time, Dengaku performers enjoyed the patronage of high-ranking nobles, which gave them the scope to develop their art into a more dramatic form. During the mid-Kamakura Period (1185 － 1333), however, Sarugaku troupes were formed under the patronage of various shrines and temples, and these troupes began to perform, based mainly around the Kinki district.

Up to the Muromachi Period (14^th century)

During the first half of the 14^th century, whilst the various Dengaku and Sarugaku troupes were vying for popularity, the actor Kan'ami (1333 － 1384) was born. Kan'ami, who had won popular acclaim, due to his superb acting skills, combined the strong points of Sarugaku with the singing and dancing of the Dengaku that were thriving in his day , and moved towards creating a new, elegant, refined performance technique. At the same time, he added the rhythms of a popular art known as kusemai (曲舞, "recitative dance"), and achieved great success in his efforts to create new musical dramas.

It was his son, Zeami (1363 －1443), who inherited this legacy and went on to establish the theatrical performances that are Noh theater as we know it today. In 1375, Zeami performed a Noh together with his father, in front of the shōgun, Ashikaga no Yoshimitsu, in Kyōto. Their performance so impressed the shōgun, that he offered patronage to father and son, and Sarugaku could finally occupy a position equal to that of Dengaku.

Zeami was quick to respond to the varying tastes of his audiences, an incorporated the best elements of past and contemporary famous actors, and further refined his father's art of mimicry. This led to a performing art of song and dance that is based upon the ideal of quiet elegance (yūgen). Zeami was at the same time playwright, director, actor, and theoretician. He was a rare genius who left behind numerous works, among which is his aesthetic treatise known as "The Transmission of the Flower and Style" (Fushi Kaden), a work devoted to the methodology of what he called "flower" (hana), or true artistic accomplishment of the stage art. Later, Noh developed upon foundation of the style established by Zeami.

The original form of Sarugaku contained an element of humourous mimicry, to which satirical elements were now added, in response to the changing social conditions of the times, and this in turn gave birth to Kyōgen. From the writings of Zeami, we can see that Noh and Kyōgen were performed alternately, that Kyōgen had developed into an art of laughter, and that the restraints on actors in Kyōgen troupes had relaxed, such that there was much exchange going on between the actors.

The Muromachi Period (15^th and 16^th Centuries)

Following Zeami's death, his mantle passed to his nephew On'ami and son-in-law, Konparu Zenchiku . On'ami surpassed Zeami in terms of technique, and he received the support of the two Ashikaga shōguns Yoshinori (1394－1441) and Yoshimasa (1436－1490), and shared the Noh world with Zenchiku, who was active as a playwright and theoretician.

Both On'ami and Zenchiku died during the time of the Ōnin Rebellion (1468－78), which weakened the power of the shōgunate and resulted in the decline of many temples and shrines, all of which had a severe impact on Noh. During those troubled times, On'ami's son, Kanze Nobumitsu (1435－1516), and his son, Kanze Nagatoshi (1488－1541), together with Zenchiku's grandson, Zenpo (1454－1520), created several multi-faceted Noh plays, that were visually rich in on-stage action, had many characters on stage together, with storylines revolving around characters having to discover a way out of their predicament through gaining the support of the general populace.

At the same time, Kyōgen became more improvisational in nature, using lines and actions on the stage to ensure laughs. There were no established scripts, simply rough outlines of the plots. However, by defining patterns of performance and refinement of the strong characters who lived in such a tumultuous age, the various familiar elements of Kyōgen today were born, and the art advanced through the consolidation of the actors.

The Momoyama Period (16^th Century)

The period of civil strife was finally subdued by Oda Nobunaga (1534 － 1582), who was amenable towards the world of Noh. He was succeeded by Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1537－98), who was an great fan of Noh, as he had been taught by an actor of the Konparu troupe. He established a system to preserve and foster the four original Yamato Sarugaku troupes, and consolidated troupes from all over the country into those four main troupes. In addition, the robes used in Noh performances became more luxurious under the influence of the splendor of the Momoyama culture, and the final form of the Noh stage was established, which has remained the same to this day. In addition, the design of almost all the masks used in Noh today emerged at the same time.

In Kyōgen, too, large schools based on lineage formed, and the original flexible, improvisational aspect of the art came to an end.

The Edo Period (17^th to 19^th Centuries)

The Tokugawa shōgunate continued Hideyoshi's system, with the four Yamato Sarugaku troupes falling under the direct control of the shōgunate government, and a structure for preserving Noh was established. At the beginning of the Edo Period (1603 － 1868), the establishment of the Kita school was allowed, and "the four troupes and one school" were in charge of all performing arts for shōgunate ceremonies. The various feudal lords followed the shogun's lead and employed actors in the lineage of "the four troupes and one school," and Noh became the exclusive performing art of the samurai class.

While the shōgunate and feudal lords were protectors of the art, they were also severe controllers, sometimes issuing decrees demanding that actors train them in their art and accurately pass on to them their traditions. As a result, Noh gradually became increasingly more solemn, and the time required to perform a play increased, and Noh was transformed into a serious art that demands great spiritual and physical energy.

Like Noh, Kyōgen, too, was codified into an established form. At the beginning of the Edo Period, the Sagi, Okura, and Izumi schools flourished greatly, absorbing all the other, smaller schools, and the age of the "three schools of Kyōgen" began. The "three schools" constantly influenced one another, and the Kyōgen that had been passed down from earlier times was refined, and scripts were prepared.

The general public had only a very limited opportunity to see Noh. The words of the songs chanted within Noh plays had been popularized at the end of the Muromachi period, but in the Edo Period a number of chant-books were published, and these began to gain in popularity all over the country. Moreover, Kyōgen scripts were also published near the end of the Edo period as texts to be read. In this way, the latent interest in Noh and Kyōgen was awakened, and it became so great that special performances for the public (街いり能 machiiri nō) and subscription performances (勧進能 kanjin nō) were held, even within the precincts of Edo Castle.

The Modern Era (19^th Century to Present)

As a result of the Meiji Restoration and the end of the samurai class, the world of Noh and Kyōgen was faced a grave crisis. Having lost their patrons, many Noh actors gave up their practice or took up another profession, and several small schools of supporting (waki) actors, musicians, and Kyōgen actors ceased to exist.

Ironically, it was the intervention of foreign plans to preserve Japanese culture, that influenced the government of the day, and through the protection and support of the Imperial Household Agency, various peers, and the new financial companies, new life was injected into Noh. At about the time that it became popular to refer to Noh and Kyōgen combined as Nōgaku. A new type of specialist Noh theater was born, in which both the audience and the unique Noh stage were both housed under a single roof. During the Taisho era (1912 － 1926) and the early part of the Shōwa era (1926 － 1989), Noh experienced its Golden Age, with the appearance of several great actors and an increase in Noh-related studies and research. This resulted in its popularity spreading amongst people of all ages and walks of life.

Although Noh faced another crisis, following Japan's defeat at the end of World War II, it was resurrected and continued to thrive. Through the devoted efforts of each generation of Noh actors performing newly written Noh and Kyōgen plays, and touring all over the country, Noh is displaying a prosperity unprecedented in its history, and through numerous performances abroad, it is today gaining high acclaim all around the world. One of the reasons for the growing popularity of Noh within Japan has been the introduction of a new young generation of stars. Most visible among them have been Izumi Motoya, often referred to as the "Prince of Noh", his sisters Izumi Junko and Miyake Tokuro, and Nomura Mansai. Izumi Junko was the first female Noh performer ever and this obviously attracted a great deal of attention.

The Characters

The main character of any Noh play is called the shite (仕手 "protagonist", or "leading part" - pronounced sh'teh) , who may occasionally be accompanied by companion characters called tsure (連れ "companion"). In many plays, especially the "fantasy Noh", the shite will appear in the first act as an ordinary person, then he departs, and reappears in the second act in his true form, usually as the ghost of famous historical person. The former is called the maejite (前じて "before") and the latter the nochijite (後じて "after" or "following"). These roles are traditionally performed by the same actor.

A secondary actor, the waki (脇 "supporting role"), often plays the part of a traveling priest, whose questioning of the main character is important in developing the storyline. He also often appears with companions, called waki-tsure (脇連れ "supporting companion"). An interlude actor called the ai-kyōgen (相狂言 "inter-kyōgen") also makes an occasional appearance, normally playing a local person who provides additional background to the waki, and thus to the audience, in order to understand the situation of the shite.

The Noh Stage

Both Noh and Kyōgen are performed upon a very special type of stage known simply as the "Noh stage" (能舞台 nobutai)

The stage resembles a shrine or temple building, with three open sides surrounding a main stage (本舞台 hon butai). The main stage is a square of approximately 5,5 meters on each side. The roof over the main stage, the eaves of which overhang the main stage on three sides, is supported by four pillars, each of which has a special name. Among them, the "sighting pillar" (目すけ柱 metsuke-bashira) performs an especially important role, as it helps the actor to position himself correctly on the stage.

The wall at the back of the stage is called the "mirror board" (鏡板 kagami ita), and on it is painted an ancient pine tree. The pine is a symbol of both strength and the eternal. Long ago, according to legend, a priest was seen dancing under a pine tree, seeking to have divine inspiration added to his dance. The painting of the tree thus symbolizes a request for the same sort of inspiration for the play.

There is an upstage area (後座 ato-za), where the musicians and stage assistants are located. The "chorus seat" (地謡座 jiutai-za) is where the members of the chorus sit, in two rows facing the main stage. Their function is to narrate the background and the story itself. They also sometimes describe the character's thoughts and emotions or even may sing lines for the characters.

The "bridgeway" (橋係 hashi-gakari) serves as the entrance and exit point for the characters, and it also plays an important role as part of the performing space. At the far end of the bridge is a multicolored curtain (揚幕 agemaku), which is raised and lowered to allow entrances and exits.

Behind the agemaku lies the green room, or, literally the "mirror room" (鏡の間 kagami no ma). This is an important space, because it is there that the performers, when fully dressed, gaze into a mirror to concentrate on their role, while waiting to enter the stage. In front of the hashi-gakari, three small, evenly-spaced pine trees are planted.

In order for the stage floor to accommodate the "sliding foot" walk of the Noh actors or for the dramatic dancing, it is constructed using thick boards of hinoki cypress, that are polished to a smooth, glassy finish. The stage is bare, with no stage equipment whatsoever, and there is no curtain separating the stage from the audience.

Located beneath the stage area are five earthenware jars, located near the pillars. Their function is to make the sound of the singing and feet-stamping reverberate. Two more jars are located underneath the musician's area, and three more under the bridge. The ground underneath the stage is hollowed out to a depth of five feet.

Stage Layout

The layout of a Noh stage

As per the above diagram, the Noh stage is laid out as follows, with the front of the stage at the bottom of the picture:

1: hashi-gakari (bridge from the agemaku to the stage)
2: kyōgen spot (the kyōgen sits here, when not performing)
3: stage attendants
4: taiko (the stick drum)
5: ōtsuzumi (the hip drum)
6: kotsuzumi (shoulder drum)
7: nō-kan (flute)
8: jiutai-za (the chorus)
9: waki seat (the waki sits here, when not performing)
10: waki spot (the spot from which the waki begins his performance)
11: shite spot (the spot from which the shite begins his performance)
12: shite-bashira (the pillar closest to the shite)
13: metsuke-bashira (the "sighting pillar")
14: waki-bashira (the pillar closest to the waki)
15: fue-bashira (the "flute" pillar)

Types of Noh Plays

Noh plays can be divided into two types, namely: genzai nō (現在能 "Realistic Noh") and mugen nō (現在能 "Fantasy Noh).

In realistic Noh, the main character (the shite) is somebody who actually lives in this world, and the story proceeds according to real time. The main theme is the depiction of the inner feelings of a character placed in a dramatic situation, and the drama develops through a spoken dialogue. In contrast, the main character of a fantasy Noh is a god, a demon, or a ghost, in other words, somebody who transcends the ordinary world. Most Noh of this type consist of two acts. The first, in which the main character appears in some disguise to the waki, who has come to visit some spot famous in history or literature or legend; and the second, in which the character re-appears in its true form, and usually performs a dance. It is because act two is fundamentally established as taking place within a dream, or vision, of the waki that this type is called mugen Noh.

Mugen Noh is based upon the gentle, lyrical beauty that is expressed by the word yūgen. The scripts of fantasy Noh are mostly based upon themes from classical literature, have elegant main characters, who can perform an appropriate dance, and are written in a flowing elegant style that makes much use of poetic diction. Those words and phrases are chanted. Noh chanting (謡 utai) is fundamental to evoking the distinctive mood of Noh, with its special modality, quality of voice, and melody.

The performer is limited to expressing his acting in a highly stylized series of stock patterns and movements (型 kata). Dance (舞 mai) ranks next to chanting in being fundamental to Noh, but, unlike other forms of dance, it contains almost no realistic movements or imitative expressions. The dancer flows with the music, especially the chanting and the rhythm, and "walks" around the stage in a sliding manner, sometimes waving a sleeve of their costume. In various scenes, the performer tries to express his inner feelings to the audience through highly refined movements. The ultimate expression of this is when the actor, sitting quietly upon the stage, and without moving at all, is able to display the quintessence of his inner acting skills. The chanting of the text and the rhythm of the music both work together to appeal to the imagination of the audience, making it aware of the presence of the actor upon the stage. That is the seed, and when an actor is successful, it is as though his flower has blossomed and a world that goes beyond reality and transcends time and space is created, and the audience is deeply moved.

The structure of the fantasy Noh was developed by Zeami, who compared the fascination of his stage art with that of a flower in nature, and searched for perfection through both spirit and technique. "Flower" (花 hana) is what makes the audience have the feeling that what they are seeing is of interest or very rare. A flower in nature is of itself beautiful. But when attempting to concretely re-create the meaning of that beauty through a stage art, not all members of the audience who see it will think that it is beautiful. Therefore, Zeami developed a method of using that seed upon the stage, and then awakening the imagination the audience, so that a beautiful flower would blossom within their heart. It was in order to achieve this goal that fantasy Noh was created.

Structure of a Noh Play

Although Noh itself is divided into either fantasy Noh or realistic Noh, the actual performances of a Noh play are divided into five separate categories, each with its own theme or main character. This dates back to the original guides for program formation decided by the Tokugawa shōgunate when determining a 5-play program for a single day. The formal program would begin with Okina, followed by plays from each of the first group (God Noh), second group (Warrior Noh), third group (Woman Noh), fourth group (Miscellaneous Noh), and fifth group (Ending Noh). This five-play program was planned such that the result was a well-balanced program lasting the whole day.

Okina

Differing from Noh and Kyōgen, Okina (翁) is a performing art patterned after an ancient ritualistic ceremony. It is often performed as part of a Noh program during the New Year season, on holidays, and for special performances, when it starts a Noh program. Its alternative name is Shiki Sanban (式三番 "The Three Rituals"), which refers to the three pieces that make up the okina. It is related to a folk ritual in which an ancient god brought blessings to the people, and was seen as a prayer for many descendants, peace and tranquility in the land, and bountiful harvests. It serves the purpose of calling for the Noh performance to be blessed by the gods.

First Group Noh

First-group Noh are often called Waki Noh (脇能) or God Noh (神能 Kami nō), and they are plays whose main characters are mostly deities who bless the land with peace and bountiful harvests, or that are filled with auspicious words relating the tale of a shrine or temple. Most of them are fantasy Noh.

Second Group Noh

Second-group Noh are called Warrior Noh (修羅能 shura-nō), and their heroes are usually the spirits of warriors who have fallen into the realm of the warring hell after death. Most of these too are fantasy Noh.

Third Group Noh

Third-group Noh are referred to as "Wig Pieces" (鬘能 kazura-nō) or "Woman Noh" (女能 onna nō) and their main characters are usually the spirits of beautiful women or young nobles, the spirits of plants, or celestial women, and almost every play of this category contains an elegant and graceful dance. Most of the plays in this group are fantasy Noh.

Fourth Group Noh

Fourth-group Noh are also called Miscellaneous Noh because they include a variety of different types of plays. There are 94 plays that fall into this group, which include the "Madness Noh (狂乱能 kyōran nō), the "Vengeful Ghost Noh" (怨霊能 onryō nō) and the "Realistic Noh" (現在能 genzai nō), which depict the present time.

Fifth Group Noh

Fifth-group Noh are called Ending Noh (切り能 kiri nō), and all of them have a quick tempo and employ the large stick drum (taiko). All the plays in this group have as their main characters goblins, demons, dragon gods, or some supernatural beast, although there are some plays in which the hero is a nobleman, or that contain many auspicious phrases.

Musical Instruments

Four instruments used during Noh performances and occasionally during the Kyōgen performances too. The are a woodwind, which is a flute (笛 fue), and three percussion instruments. The percussion consists of a shoulder-drum (鼓 ko-tsuzumi), a hip-drum (大鼓 ōtsuzumi), and a stick-drum (太鼓 taiko). Together they are often referred to as the "four beat-makers". One particularly unique feature is the use of "drum calls" (掛け声 kakegoe), the shouts or cries of the drummers which serve as signals between the drummers as well as between the drummers and singers. These drum calls also add an important element to the sound texture of the performance.

Flute

The flute is also referred to as the no-kan (能管 "Noh wind instrument"), and is the only one of the instruments capable of creating a melody. Made out of bamboo, it has a mouthpiece and 7 holes, and it partially wrapped in strips of rattan or birch bark in order to strengthen it. It is especially used in the sections where the shite dances.

Shoulder Drum

The shoulder-drum consists of a main body of cherry-wood, with two heads made of horse leather stretched over iron hoops, attached by means of a linen cord. This is also used to regulate the sound. During a performance, the player can often be seen to breathe upon the heads, for it is necessary to maintain a certain degree of humidity and to prevent the head from becoming over dry.

Hip Drum

The hip-drum is a larger version of the shoulder-drum, and as its heads are dried over a charcoal fire just before the performance, and as its cord is tied very tightly, it produces a louder, harsher sound than the shoulder-drum.

Stick Drum

The stick-drum has a main body made of elm wood, and its heads consist of horsehide stretched over iron hoops and attached by means of a linen cord. It is played by being struck with two large sticks (撥 bachi), made from hinoki cypress. The drum is often used in tales in which the shite is the spirit of a non-human being, and the stick-drum is used during the second act, as a means to propel the action.

As three out of the four instruments are percussive, it is easy to see that that the main characteristic of Noh music is that it is built upon rhythmic patterns. All of the drum players can produce various sounds by changing the strength with which the drum is struck, and, as mentioned, they also produce various unique shouts (kakegoe), which help to create the rhythm.

Movement and Suriashi

All movements within a Noh performance are highly stylized and prescribed. Whilst some gestures may have a specific meaning, others serve as an abstract expression to convey the emotions of the characters. Sometimes there is very little movement, as narration alone is used to build dramatic tension in a scene. At other times, this gives way to strong, vigorous movements.

Foremost among these movements are the gaits, or walking patterns of the actors. This is a feature common to many traditional Asian theater and dance forms, especially the use of exaggerated walking movements, used to present a strong figure to the audience, even when viewed from a distance.

Noh also makes use a form of an exaggerated walk, called suriashi (摺足), which means "sliding feet", but rather than exaggerating a normal human step, it almost compresses it, mostly as a result of wearing a kimono, which naturally restricts the ability to take a "normal" step. This feature has carried over into Noh and has been aided by the use of the extremely smooth stage floor.

The suriashi walk is the essence of Noh movement. It is the second thing a Noh apprentice is taught, after the kamae (構え) - the basic standing posture. To walk suriashi, one's feet slide across the floor, with both the toes and heel in near constant contact with the floor, until the end of the step. At this point, the front of the foot is slightly raised. The knees are kept slightly bent, to cushion this movement, thus allowing the upper part of the body to remain at a constant height, without bobbing up and down. This also aligns the basic posture of the actor, with his hips and thus his center of gravity, which prevents his upper body from swaying from side to side as he takes each step.

The effect of this walk can be quite striking, or even unnerving to the uninitiated, especially when an actor makes his entrance or exit down the long hashi-gakari. Because the audience are unable to see the feet, it creates the impression that the actor is floating down the hashi-gakari.

The size of the steps taken, as well as the angle of the feet will vary, depending on the character being portrayed. Women are usually portrayed with the feet parallel and almost touching. Their steps will be small; usually no more than the length of one foot, and even smaller for old women. Men will spread the feet slightly apart and they will angled outwards. The distance between the feet, as well as the size of the step will be greater, when portraying warriors, or demons, in order to present a strong figure on stage.

No matter which character is being played, suriashi and kamae will always be graceful, relaxed and flowing, allowing the actor to convey his energy, and the personality of his character to the audience.

Masks

The type of character portrayed on stage will depend upon the type of play being performed, but the majority of characters range from the spirits of men and women and even plants or trees, to gods, demons, and supernatural beings. In almost all cases, however, the actors do not wear make-up, but rather an beautifully hand-carved mask. In principle, there is a Noh mask appropriate for each main role.

Noh masks, called omote (面 "face" or "features") are very important props that symbolise Noh as a masked drama. In documents dating back to the Momoyama period, about 60 various types of masks are listed, and these still account for most of the masks in use today. Most, but not all, shite roles require the use of a mask, but in principle, the roles of kokata (子方 "child actors") and actual living men are performed without a mask. This performance style is called hita-men (直面 "direct face"), and the actor performs without expression, as though his own face has become the mask. Within established limits, there are specific masks used for each type of character. The actor performing the shite role chooses the most appropriate mask based upon his idea of the subject matter and his plan for the performance.

The masks are sculpted in a way in which the real and the abstract are ingeniously joined to produce a beauty of form, and great effort has been exerted to make them conform to the actual performance. Depending upon the movements of the actor, they can cause various moods to be expressed upon the stage.

Wearing a mask can seriously impair a shita's vision, thus the "sighting pillar" plays an important role in guiding him to the correct spot on stage.

Okina Masks

These masks were used by Sarugaku troupes when they performed Okina Sarugaku, long before Noh developed its final form. Because they were used in sacred prayer rituals, there are still some shrines that have enshrined them as objects of worship. Each one of these masks expresses rich laughter, and all except Enmei Kaja portray an old god, and display special features, such as the separate jaw part, and the form of the eyes and eyebrows.

Old Man Masks

Old Man (aku-jo) masks express the features of very old men, and there are many different types of such masks, some with implanted hair that is tied up, and some that have distinguishing beards or teeth.

God or Demon Masks

The God or Demon Masks (tobide) express the wildness and raw power of supernatural beings, and are separated into two types, namely open-mouthed and close-mouthed. All have wide, staring eyes and this is what gives them their name - since tobide means "bulging eyes"). Masks with a large mouth powerfully held shut, are used for the roles of goblins. The open mouth masks are used for supernatural beasts.One special characteristic of all of the masks of this type is that they all have gold-colored eyes.

Male Masks

There are a large number of Male Masks, as they are used to portray any male character who is not an old man. They are divided both by age and character. There are also special masks that are only used for a single role, for example, The Heita mask is used for the ghost of a warrior troubled with an obsession. There are also blind character masks, which are characterized by extremely small holes gouged in downward looking eyes.

Female Masks

The number of Female Masks is also very large, as they are used to portray any female character, including an old woman, and they are also divided both by age and character. Compared with the male masks, female masks do not display such a wide range of individuality, and there are no female masks used only for specific roles. The way in which strands of hair are drawn on their sides is characteristic of each type. For example, the Ko-omote mask is the prettiest, and expresses a rather naive innocence. With its broad forehead, high eyebrows, and long narrow eyes―having small square holes gouged out of their black pupils, a mouth that can express either a frown or a smile, and full cheeks, it expresses the essence of a young woman.

Vengeful Spirit Masks

Vengeful Spirit masks are used to portray angry spirits, both living and dead, whose anger demands expression. The very famous Hannya mask, which people who do not even know Noh are probably familiar with, expresses both the fury and the sorrow of a jealous woman; characterized by its two horns, its gaping mouth, and its angry eyes, it is especially used for woman who have transformed into a demon. One characteristic of the masks in this category is that they all have strands of disheveled hair drawn on their sides.

Fans

All actors who enter the stage carry a fan. There are two types of fans, namely shizume-ōgi (末広扇), which are ordinary folding fans; and chūkei (中啓), which are designed so that the outer tip is partly open, even when the fan is closed. In general, a chūkei is carried by both the shite and waki actors, and a shizume-ōgi by the chorus members, stage assistants, musicians, and the ai-kyōgen. There are various decorations painted upon the fans, and there are some general rules based upon the type of character being portrayed―for example, a chūkei that is predominately red (色入日 iroiri "colour of the setting sun") is used for a young woman shite in a Third-group Woman Noh.

External links

Bibliography

Gunji,M. and Cohen, S. J., "Virtuosity and Aesthetic Ideals of Japanese Dance and Virtuosity and Aesthetic Ideals of Western Dance" Dance Research Annual 14, 1983

Kozo,Y., "Early Kabuki Dance" Dance Research Annual, 14, 1983

Kusano, E., "Stories Behind Noh and Kabuki Plays" Tokyo News Service, 1978

Ortolani, B. "Spirituality for the Dancer-Actor in Zeami's and Zenchiki's Writings on Noh" Dance Research Annual, 14, 1983

Shigetoshi,K., Yoshio, Y. and Takeskoshi, K., "Theatre in Japan" Japanese Ministry of Finance, Tokyo, 1963

Wolz, C., "Dance in the Noh Theatre" The World of Music, Vol, 17, No.3, 1976

Zarina, X, "Classic Dances of the Orient" Crown, New York, 1967

Karen Brazell. Traditional Japanese Theater: An Anthology of Plays. Columbia University Press. 1998.

Benito Orolani. The Japanese Theatre: From Shamanistic Ritual to Contemporary Pluralism. Princeton University Press. 1990.

References